New Nepali Rap

New Tharu Videos Culture or Taboo Medium

Viktor Shklovsky and Ostranenie of Art

Form, System and Structure
• The Russian Formalists and the New Critics applied themselves to linguistics in order to discover the specific nature of literary language.
• Russian theorists were deeply influenced by linguistics.
• Both Russian Formalism and New Criticism ask the question:
o What is distinctive about the way literature uses language ?
• They both regard literature as special use of language which is able to convey experiences in a fresh or novel way.
• Shklovsky argues that the devices of literature deliberately roughen the surface of language in order to gain the readers’ attention and to defamiliarize the perception which is against habitual or automatisation.
• The Russian Formalists, especially Shklovsky were not really interested in experience itself. Attention is focused not upon the extra-literary dimension of ‘defamiliarized’ perception but upon the literary process itself.
• Somewhat purely concerned with the matters of technique rather than social command.
• The Formalists believed that a true study of literature concentrates on the formal devices which are used to produce the effects of defamiliarization.
• It means to lay bare the devices themselves.
• Formalists treat the literary text as an autonomous or autotelic object.
 
VIKTOR SHKLOVSKY
Art as Technique (1917)
• Habitualization devours one’s works, clothes, furniture, one’s wife, and the fear of war.
• Art exists to make one recover the sensation of life.
• It exists to make one feel things, to make the stone stony.
• The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived not as they are known.
• The technique of art is to make objects ‘unfamiliar’ to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end itself and must be prolonged.
• Art is a way of experiencing the artfulness of an object; the object is not so much important.
• Art removes objects from the automatism of perception in several ways.
• Tolstoy makes the familiar seem strange by not naming the familiar object. He describes an object as if he were seeing it for the first time, an event as if it were happening for the first time.
• He avoids accepted names of its parts that makes the content of the story seem unfamiliar.
o Modernists and postmodernists writing type
o Breaking conventions in art writing
o Suppose any story from animal’s point of view
• The author’s purpose is to create the vision which results from the de-automatized perception.
• A work is created ‘artistically’ so that its perception is impeded and the greatest possible effect is produced through the slowness of the perception.
• According to Aristotle, poetic language must appear strange and wonderful; and in fact, it is often actually foreign.

Meaning V/S Significance...Why anarchism is not enteratined by Hirsch ?

The Aims of Interpretation (1976)
Hirsch tries to protect the author
He argues that meaning does not change only its significance.
He refutes the idea that meaning does not change only its significance.
But for Heidegger reading in the present we can not escape the preconception of our culture.
Another philosopher Gadamer focuses not upon the text, the author or literary influences but upon the reception of the text from the time of its composition to the present.
As Hirsch for another phenomenological critic Husserl, the meaning of literary text is bound up with the writer’s mental object; it consists of whatever he or she had in mind when the work was composed. Meaning is thus an intentional object.
Hirsch brings this idea of phenomenology and distinguishes between meaning and significance.
Meaning Significance
Fixed Dynamic
Identical with author’s intention Historically conditioned interpretation of given work
A work’s meaning is author’s Contextual and modern meaning
Should not be appropriated by the reader, if done amounts to theft Autobiographical impulses ignored and looks at present impulses
Self-identical/original Anachronistic and modern meaning
Against reader’s interpretation Assumed
Legitimate interpretation Illegitimate interpretation
Intended meaning Affective meaning


• There is no viable distinction between ‘literature’ and their classification of written speech
• The ethics of language hold good in all uses of language, oral and written in poetry as well as in philosophy
• All are ethically governed by author’s intention.
• To treat an author’s words merely as grist for one’s own mill is ethically analogous to using another man for one’s own purpose.
• According to Hirsch, this is ruthlessness of interpretation
• Professional practice of interpretation means avoiding our intention.
• Such anarchy of reader’s judgement is not good.
• The modern anarchy of every man for himself in matters of interpretation sounds like the ultimate victory of the Protestant Spirit.
• Such anarchy is direct consequence of transgressing the fundamental ethical norms of speech and its interpretation.

Genius: Nature VS Art

Genius : Nature V/S Art
Classical Critics were only concerned with technical knowledge in art and literature.
Plato calls poets imitators and divine frenzy.
Sublimity: ideas of natural ability-naturally gifted beyond mere technical skill.
 By Longinus
 Touched by Roman and Jewish thoughts
 Also calls hypsos
 Based on writer’s mental characteristics
 Greatness of soul (megalopsychia)
 Power of conceiving impressive thoughts
 Makes strong emotional impact on the reader
 Irrestible effect on readers
#Romantics  transmitted to modern thought the notion of ‘originality’
 Which was previously taken for granted or accepted as a self-evident in all the arts.
 New styles and genres are created by some individual
 Romantics played up the uniqueness and individuality of genius.
# Longinus distinguishes between rhetoric and genuine poetic power
 Rhetoric :- the command of verbal skill; skills of art
 Genuine:- not restrained by rules and regulations
 “Can attain a grace beyond reach of art” Pope
 True genius can express sublime ideas which are associated with large scenes and aspects of nature not small and intimate realities. (Opposite to Wordsworth)
 Longinus preserves certain literary devices to achieve the grand effect of sublimty
 Grand ideas-grand words
 “Let there be light”- grand idea
 Brave Gorkhalis: Grand ideas
 Imitation is a transplantation of the original to foreign soil
 Original is a new plant which grows naturally
 Coleridge’s fancy is imitation because it is derived from pre-existing materials
# Hazlitt argues that one cannot define or intellectually grasp the nature of the production of genius.
 Sulblime writers point us what is before our eyes and under our feet.
# Longinus “On Sublime” (3rd C)
 True sublime elevates us with a sense of proud possession
 Fills us with joyful pride
 As if we had ourselves produced the very thing we heard
 If any idea doesnot affect us then it’s not true sublime
 Outlast the moment of utterance
 Gives abundant food for thought
 Its impossible to resist its effect
 Pleases all people at all time
 All agree together in holding one and the same view about the same writing
 Calls genius as “demigods”( half-gods)
 Great and divine things develop
 Develops unconquerable passion into our hearts
 Extraordinary, great and beautiful
 Don’t write about what is useful and necessary
 Write about unusual which wins our wonder
 Sublimity lifts them near the mighty mind of gods

Emotive Use of Language in D.H. Lawrwnce's Spring Funeral

Emotive Use of Language in D.H. Lawrence’s Spring Funeral

“The Spring Funeral” is an excerpt taken from” The White Peacock”, the first novel of D.H Lawrence. The novel was written in 1906 but finally published in 1911 after three revisions. It is narrated in the first person by a character named Cyril Beardsall. The spring funeral takes place in the chapter 2 “The shadow in spring”. This particular section, is a pastoral elegy, that raises the issues propounded in Emotive Theory by I.A. Richards, such as valorization of nature, synasthesia, human sensibility and organicity.
In the description of spring funeral, the writer like a painter, depicts the early spring season with the vibration of the non-human world, the birds like larks, thrush, lapwings and the black-legged lamb. All the animals seem to be intoxicated by the magnificent morning and feel the thrill. The natural scenes of hazels, sallow trees and pale wind-flowers portray the gloom. In Emotive theory by I.A. Richards, he gives emphasis on the nature and its effects in the life of people. I.A. Richards believes that industrialization and modernity brings dehumanization, but nature breeds emotions in human beings.
When reading about the spring funeral, the reader is immersed in nature in a way that is sometimes tragic, sometimes ecstatic. This is one of the great charms of the excerpt from the book. Moments of life, of supreme harmony in spring time gives rise to ecstasy, and at the same time there’s a tragic side to it, as the funeral procession is going on. The Annable the game keeper has just died, and the narrator is seeing the spectrum of how nature is participating in the procession and how aloof somethings are. In the light of both happiness and sadness, we find ‘synasthesia’ and IA Richards view that discordant feelings and emotions can be harmonized only in Art and Literature. For him, Art and Literature also is a therapeutic tool.
The lapwings, unlike other birds in the springtime, they lament and take part in the wailing and crying of the people in procession. They seem to be engaged at an emotional level to the surrounding. All the other birds and the lamb retreat into silence and they are also aware of the human feelings. The narrator and the people carrying the white coffin also show the respect and condolence towards the dead. The nature’s participation in joyous or sad moments is known as pathetic fallacy. In regards to I.A. Richards, the human sensibility, or an acute perception of or responsiveness toward something, such as the emotions of another is the most important aspect.
There’s an inter-relatedness, coherence, and connection between the natural objects, the animals and the human beings in the spring funeral. The picture gives us the clue that all these entities can’t be separated. The eco-system or the “organicity” of nature and humans is inseparable. Lawrence’s description of the springtime, and the events glorifies the bio-centric view against the existing notion of anthropocentrism. I.A. Richards says that the Art and Literature has the organization of fullness of life and it creates the impulses in the readers.
Thus, the spring funeral, is a remarkable handling of the language by Lawrence, who shows us the picture of life and death, and the way it keeps going on in a cycle. The spring funeral is a great excerpt to see through the emotive theory given by I.A. Richards. It connects with the idea of the theorist showing that the emotional consciousness, and emotional response is created in the minds of the reader by a work of Art and Literature.

Grotesque use of Language in Richard Mayne's short story F**d

Asmita Ojha ‘15’

The Theory of Literary Criticism, Eng. 553

Instructor: Markas Dangaura

25^th April, 2018

Grotesque use of Language in Richard Mayne's short story F**d

            This paper seeks to examine the ambivalent use of language in Mayne's short story food. The writer was accused of using immoral words in his story. Actually, the writer has used language very ambiguously to mean something else. Hence, how he arouses the appetite of chicken meat in the readers through the usage of sexual imageries becomes a researchable issue.

            J.L. Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words argues about the performative and ambiguous use of language. Austin rejects the old logical view of language as description of state of affairs in the world. He argues, "While some statements may be constative (referential), many others are performative" (95). Some words actually perform the actions they describe. Here, in this story, the judge performs the act of opening the court session by saying , "Well, ladies and gentleman of the jury, we have all heard a great deal this afternoon about purity and compassion" (6). The judge performs along with his utterance. As he says ladies and gentlemen he opens the court listening.

            Raman Selden in "Language and Representation" argues, "A speech act must have a context for it to have a meaning" (95). In other words we decide on meaning once we have decided whether or not a particular locution is an appropriate speech act within particular conventional situation. "Well ladies and gentlemen of the jury" would not possess a performative function in an informal gathering such as a party, unless it were construed as a joke. Selden argues, "Wittgenstein proposes that whole language system is made by the specific context in which the language usage occurs" (95). Austin's theory of speech acts is also related to Wittgenstein's view of language.

            Austin rejects the Aristotelian idea that "The mind should passively reflect things and these images of things should be reflected without distortion in a clear language" (97). In Mayne's story, the clear representation of eating a big chicken tandoori in every Sunday by a couple is reflected in a much distorted way. The small excerpt from the writer's book seems the elaboration of sexual intercourse at first hand. He narrates, "Her hungry eyes met his as, ever so slowly, and she turned to reveal the warm, full curves of her breast and leg. He watched, fascinated as the covering fell away from the soft white skin. Eagerly, he bent forward" (7). The picture of chicken tandoori is presented as a lady seducing a male before sex.

            Austin's grotesque uses of language are the distortions of true human nature. Interestingly his ambiguous story makes us please at the end. It satirizes the follies and vices of the human mind as they are expressed in language. Languages are full of such distorted discourse.

            Austin argues about the three features of human speech. First one is locutionary, second illocutionary and the third is perlocutionary act. As argued by Austin locutionary act means "Uttering a certain sentence within a certain sense and reference" (120). Here, the uttering act of judge about the verdict of the court regarding the book is locutionary act. The story narrates, "For what we have to consider and consider very carefully before we give out verdict" (7). The uttering of verdict is with a sense that before something about anything, we have to be very careful and have enough knowledge. Here, the judge wants readers understand that the book is not about anything immoral.

            Next, Austin argues about the illocutionary act of speech which is performative function of speech. He argues, "To perform an illocutionary act is to determine in what way we are using the locution" (120). Either we are asking or answering a question, or performance of an act in saying something. The story narrates, "We have to consider this book not as remote academic professors, not as pedants but as people, as men and women of the world" (7). The judge appeals people to criticize the book like a common man. Finding certain ideology, psychology and criticism in a text is a duty of professors and teachers but common man should read the text as an art. If we apply theory to any text, the beauty of that text seems quite unfamiliar to us. Thus, here the illocutionary act of the judge can be said as indirect order and appeal.

            Third and the final function of speech is perlocutionary act of speech. Austin argues, "Saying something will often, or even normally produce certain consequential effects upon the feelings thoughts of the audience" (121). He further argues that it may be done with the design, intention or purpose. The judge in the story wants people confirm the non-vulnerability of the text. He thus brings the excerpt from the accused book to prove that book is about arousing temptation and inflame the appetites. The ending of that excerpt states, "Estella surrendered to the moment's sudden succulence, the firm warm flesh that brought the secret juices welling from within her. All too soon they were replete, exhausted. On Sunday's, they always bought too big a chicken" (8). This small excerpt from the book confirms that the book is not about immorality and vulgarity. Rather, the book is a strong procedure to arouse the deep hunger making our mouth juicy for the chicken tandoori.

             Austin claims, "The occasion of an utterance matters seriously and that the words used are to some extent to be explained by the context in which they are designed" (121). The judge saying "And let me remind you ladies and gentleman" (7) is actually contextual because he is addressing all the jury and all the public listening the court session. The judge is persuading them against the blasphemy of the book arguing, "The world is not an ivory tower where there are no problems, no dangers, no human weakness. The world is full of temptations; temptations of the flesh" (7). He disconfirms the negative reaction of the book proposing that since human beings are not out of the play of problems, of course there arise problems. And he develops the context to present the paragraph before them by saying the world is full of temptations, seduction, and attractiveness. Either human flesh or chicken flesh, humans are tempting creatures.

            Consequently, Austin argues about the "Poetical use of language and parasitic use of language" (121) which he means that language can be used very poetically to refer certain action. In the story, the accused writer has used the language in very poetic way to arouse human hunger. Similarly, his language is parasitic because it is dependence upon the sexual connotations and imagery. The words "Her breast and leg , soft white skin, warm flesh, secret juices" (7-8). All these words imply sexual imageries.

            Thus, we can affirm the performative use of language which is more powerful and thrilling. The context is necessary to know the text is explicated by Mayne as argued by Austin.

  

Aesthetic Representation of Reality in Sadat Hasan Manto’s Story Open It

Sunita Khadka ‘9’

The Theory of Literary Criticism, Eng. 553

Prof. Markas Dangaura

17^th April, 2018

Aesthetic Representation of Reality in Sadat Hasan Manto’s Story Open It

This paper tries to seek the aesthetic representation of reality in Sadat Hasan Manto's short partition story "Open it." It is story that reflects the violence of India and Pakistan partition. Thus, how Georg Lukacs's theory of art and objective truth is applicable to Manto's story is a researchable issue.

Before analyzing the text from the perspective of Lukac's theory of course it is necessary to know about the key elements of his theory. His theory deals with 'Art and Objective truth.' In his theory he presents his view on how art should reflect the reality. He argues, "The goal for all great art is to provide a picture of reality in which the contradiction between appearance and reality, the particular and general the immediate and the  conceptual is so resolved that that the two converge into  a spontaneous  integrity" (59). Here, Manto's story provides the picture of reality of India Pakistan partitionship of 1947. Manto himself had to be its victim and he had to leave Bombay for Lahore.

Lukacs argues, "The universal appears as a quality of the individual and particular, reality becomes manifest and can be experienced within reality" (59). In the story the particular story of Sirajuddin becomes the manifestation general reality of those common marginalized people. The story narrates, "Old Sirajuddin opened his eyes on the cold floor of the camp; seeing the swelling sea of men, women and children, he become still more confused" (2). Here the writer doesn't bring the stories of whole victims but only the story of particular individual. Actually, Lukacs was inspired by Karl Marx and Hegel. That's why somewhere his theory is also affected by philosophy of above mentioned people.

According to Lukacs, "Artistic work must be circumscribed, self-evident, self-contained and have complete context within itself" (59). Here the story has its own complete context. The context is of partition and it has its own world to prove its authenticity of social and objective reality. The context provides the information of violence and brutality of human war. The story narrates, "Many people were killed en route, many injured; some went astray" (2). The necessity for the immediate obviousness of the special context is clearest in the story. The context of mass murders and killings and the context of mayhem are clearly presented from the beginning.

The story 'Open it' is actually based on historical context of India. In 1947 when India was divided into Pakistan what happened and how common people had suffered has been clearly shown in this story by Manto. During the partition of India Muslim people of India migrated to Pakistan and Hindu people of Pakistan migrated to India. But this migration from one country to another was violent and full of obstacles, misery, loot, rapes and fatal events. This is the historical context of the story.

Lukacs argues, "The true, fundamental interrelationship in any novel or drama can be disclosed only at the end. Because of the very nature of their construction and effect, only the conclusion provides the full clarification of beginning" (60). Now if we analyze the story we can find the real situation of Sakina only at the end. We come to know that she has been brutally raped and thrown to die by her own Muslim brothers. The story at the end narrates, "At the sound of the words, Sakina's corpse moved. Her dead hands undid her salwar and lowered it" (60). The final piece of event provides the full clarification of why Sakina was lost and abducted by rioters as well as rescuers. Now if we analyze the story, we find as Lukacs argues that artistic work must represent the reality meditatively not photographically or mechanically. Manto does not describe all the events that happens at railway station, how was his wife killed, how other people suffered. But through artistic form, he enables reader to grasp the events which are not depicted in text.

From the beginning to the end the writer creates suspense, doubt and readers are curious to know what is going to happen next. They go through the each events of plot but at last readers find the outcome themselves which writer desired to give. This story also follows the principle of necessity. The volunteers are portrayed as civilized, gentle from their appearance activities.  Later on, we come to know that Sakina was raped by the same volunteers. so, it resolves the contradiction between appearance and reality. The writer doesn't describe each people's events rather he takes one particular individual and family narrative. Georg Lukacs argues," The work of art in its totality reflects the full process of life and does not represent in its details reflections" (64). He narrates their suffering to generalize the sense that how the victims of that part repeitionship had been suffered by their own race.

The volunteers appointed by the government of Pakistan refer to elite class, more clearly 'haves.' Sirajuddin and Sakina are representative of 'haves not' proletariat. We find Sakina has been raped by those volunteers. This actually shows how marginalized people are exploited by elite class people. Lukacs argues, "Bourgeoisie ascendancy was isolated from social reality which reflections of social problems" (65). As Hegel argues that though art reflects objective reality, it must be circumscribed, self-contained, complete in context and self-evident. It means it must have its own world. The evident described in story is total reflection of historical and political events. Its context is also clear but through refining the events it has created its own world in which we find character, geography, situation, events and so on. It is complete in itself. But it actually reflects the real historical reality and context.

            If we pay attention to the last event of the story, doctor is shocked when he sees Sakina's corpse moving. Here, Manto is empathized towards Sakina. Doctor perhaps thinks that she was raped by the race of her own race. Thus, we can find partitionship of objectivity with the writer. His feelings and emotions are more inclined towards Sakina and other victims of partitionship.

Georg Lukacs argues, “The basic materialism of all great artists appears in their depiction of the pertinent preconditions and motivations out of which the consciousness of their characters arises and develops” (60). Here, Sirajuddin after the unconscious travelling from Amritsar, remembers his daughter Sakina through the piece of dupatta. He also remembers his dead wife killed from ripping the stomach. The precondition to remember the past consciousness is dupatta. Sakina’s black mole on her right cheek is also the precondition of how he recognizes and asks other to recognize his daughter.

Similarly, Lukacs argues, “Every significant work of art creates its own world, character, situation and action” (60). This story has also its own world. It has its own characters. The situation resembles the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan. The geography described is about the violent riot of partition. The story describing the geography narrates, “The special train left Amritsar at two in the afternoon and reached Mughalpura eight hours later” (2). The geography of Punjab and Pakistan is described in necessary level.

Lukacs argues, “The effect of the work of art ceases once the reader becomes the aware of contradiction, once he senses that work of art is not an accurate reflection of reality” (61). Here, while reading this story readers come to assume it as reality. But actually it’s not real event of some particular Sirajuddin. This story is only the medium to portray the picture of reality of then partition. It reflects the picture of reality as a whole. Thus, according to Lukacs, it possesses the quality of the particular to general.

This story does not bear the extensive totality of life. Because if it will bear the extensive totality of life, the single story would change into a long narrative as a form of novel. So, the unnecessary details and intensive qualities are only included. As argued by Lukacs, “the detail must be so selected and so depicted from the outset” (66). The extensive totality of reality necessarily is beyond the possible scope of any artistic creation. Manto writes, “10 am. Old Sirajuddin opened his eyes on the cold floor of the camp, seeing the swelling sea of men, women and children, he become still more confused” (2). Here, the artist does not describe the photographic details of Sirajuddin’s situation and the situation of the camp. The writer only presents the selected details that gives the picture of whole reality to the audience. Lukacs also argues that the briefest song can be as effective as the mightiest epic. The objective quantity  and quality of life is depicted by Manto.

As claimed by Lukacs, “Art represents the unity of the immediate and the universal” (62). Here, in the story the immediate reflects to the individual story of Sirajuddin. Likewise, universal refers to the general condition of whole marginalized Muslim class people. Sirajuddin’s immediate story brings forth the whole scenario of the emergency period of partition.

Lukacs also argues about the “propaganda effect of genuine work of art” (63) which explains that the artist should not take stand or side to any party. But Lukacs claims that since this kind of impartial imitation is impossible or false objectivity, the writer should have partisanship of objectivity which means that writer should show sympathy or support the subaltern people indirectly. Manto in this story is not directly advocating for those Muslim sufferers but through artistic representation, his attachment or empathy is with them.

            Lukacs states about the “aesthetic illusion” (64) in the great work of art. It means that we surrender ourselves to art while reading it as though it presents reality to us. This story also enchants us to believe that this is factual or historical narrative of certain real person called Sirajuddin. But its not necessary that Sirajuddin was there in reality. If the writer writes about reality, the writer becomes historian not artist. Thus, the realistic art deceives us for taking something as reality. Its not necessary that artist should have direct experience. Through indirect experience also, the artist can portray the picture of reality. Here, Manto portrays the picture of reality which makes us feel that Manto has really experienced it.

            There is objective anarchy in the selection and arrangement of story material. The events, characters, and scenes are very objectively selected. Unnecessary description is not there. The traumatic condition of Sakina after rape is artistically represented. Thus, while reading this story, there is not ‘ahh…ooh…ssshh’ feeling.

Works Cited

A Course Packet of Primary Books for Literary Criticism. CDE, TU, 2017, pp. 2-6.

Selden, Raman. “The Theory of Criticism: From Plato to the Pesent.” Longman, 1990, pp. 59-66.

How Objective Necessity is different from Subjective Idealism and Mechanical Representation

“Art and Objective Truth”from Writer and Critic (1965, 1970), Georg Lukacs

•       The goal of all great art is to provide a picture of reality in which the contradiction between appearance and reality, the particular and general, the immediate and conceptual is so resolved that the two converge into a spontaneous integrity in the direct impression of the work of art and provide a sense of an inseparable integrity.

•       The universal appears as a quality of the individual and the particular.

•       Reality becomes manifest and can be experienced within appearance

•       Every work of art must present a circumscribed, self-contained and complete context with its own immediately self-evident movement and structure.

•       The true, fundamental relationships in any novel or drama can be disclosed only at the end.

•       Because of the very nature of their construction and effect, only the conclusion provides full clarification of the beginning.

•       The motivating factors in the world depicted in a literary work of art are revealed in an artistic sequence and climaxing.

•       Climaxing must be accomplished within a direct unity of appearance and reality present from the very beginning.

•       The self-contained immediacy in the work of art presupposes that every work of art evolve within itself all the preconditions for its characters, situations, events, etc.

•       The basic materialism of all great artists appears in their clear depiction of the pertinent preconditions and motivations out of which the consciousness of their characters arises and develops.

•       Every significant work of art creates its ‘own world’. Characters, situations, actions, etc.

•       But entirely distinct from everyday reality.

•       The greater the artist, the more intensely his creative power permeates all aspects of his work of art and more pregnantly his fictional world emerges through all the details of the work.

•       Balzac in his book Comedie Humaine argues, “My work has its own geography as well as its own genealogy and its own families, its places and its objects, its people and its facts, its aristocracy and bourgeoisie, its workmen and peasants, its politicians and its dandies-in short its world.”

•       The apparently circumscribed world in the work of art is non-correspondent with reality.

•       But this non-correspondence is only illusion, though a necessary one essential and intrinsic to art.

•       Special world of the work of art results from the fact that the work by its very nature offers a truer, more complete, more vivid and more dynamic reflection of reality.     

•       More concrete insight into reality.                                                                  

•       The effect of the work of art ceases once the reader becomes aware of the contradiction, once he senses that the work of art is not an accurate reflection of reality.

•       This is only illusion and its necessary.

•       Reader does not consciously compare an individual experience with an isolated event of the work of art but surrenders himself to the general effect of the work of art on the basis of his own assembled general experience.

•       The work of art must reflect correctly and in proper proportion all important factors objectively determining the area of life it represents.

•       Area of life becomes comprehensible from within which is called totality of life..

•       The totality of the work of art is rather intensive: the circumscribed and self contained ordering of those factors which objectively are of decisive significance for the portion of life depicted..which determines total life process

Propaganda effect of the genuine work of art

•      The representation of life in art seems more structured and ordered more richly and strictly than ordinary or real life itself.

•      Impartial imitation- taking no stand or providing no call for any action.

Partitionship of objectivity

•      A writer’s sympathy should go for the subordinate/marginalized people. His/her voice should be in favor of downtrodden people.

•      Tendentiousness must spring out of the situation and action without being expressly pointed out.

Aesthetic illusion

•      The effect of work of art is that we surrender ourselves to the work as though it presented reality to us, accept it as reality and immerse ourselves in it although we are always aware that it is not reality but simply a special form of reflecting reality.

•      Lenin observes that “Art does not demand recognition as reality.”

Subjective Idealism

•      Subjective idealism is thinking only in terms of abstract ideas and standing away from the world of reality. Only believing upon your feelings and emotions can not produce the objective reality of society. It can be bad if it does not have link with reality of concrete world, practical world.

Why Art for Art’s Sake was propaganda theory ?

•      Art for art’s sake was developed by bourgeoisie to neglect the content and imitation of life because they never wanted to bring forth the social reality to the common readers. It was developed because with the course of time, they lost the necessary details to include in their writings. Readers would not have accepted their writings because most of the writers belonged to that class. Thus, it was political propaganda to diffuse the working class wrath against them. It was means not to make them aware about the social evils, which was most often due to bourgeois domination.

Why Photographic Representation is not good for art of reality ?

•      Photographic representation is totally accidental, arbitrary and subjective.

•      The objectivity of the artistic reflection of reality depends on the correct reflection of reality.

Objective Anarchy

•      It means that while presenting facts and details in context artist chooses materials out of pure subjectivity and necessity., which is also called objective necessity.

•      Artist should create, choose and organize material out of objective necessity.

•      Details of rape is not presented in the story.

•      Objective reality of particular event.

•      The writer’s empathy should be there, the writer should not advocate for the subaltern people directly.

•      He/she should only show their condition, should not act as supporting or give necessary details supporting their situations.

•      Mechanical representation(Materialism) falls into distorted idealism and subjectivism.

Mimetic Representation of Human Reality in P. B. Shelley’s Ozymandias

Barsha Ghimire ‘7’

The Theory of Literary Criticism, Eng. 553

Prof. Markas Dangaura

7^th April, 2018

Mimetic Representation of Human Reality in P. B. Shelley’s Ozymandias

            The poem “Ozymandias” is a satiric poem intended to convey the message that power and pride are vain. This poem imitates the message the character and action of an ancient Egyptian emperor Ramesses II. Aristotle in his “Poetics” argues, “Art is an imitation of imitation.” Thus, how this poem embodies the imitative features of Aristotle becomes a researchable issue.

            Aristotle argues about the structure of plot required for a good poem. He argues, “Every mode of art differs from one another in three ways; either by their difference in means, by difference in the objects and in the manner of their imitation” (45). The narrator in the poem meets with a traveler from antique land and comes to know about the colossal wrecked statue of Ramesses II.  The narrator argues that the sculptor has exactly imitated the actions and emotional essence of the king. Moreover, the statue portrays the realistic lifestyle of the king. The narrator states, “Tell that its sculptor well those passions read” (6). The sculptor is able to read those passions of king. He vividly exposes the king’s attitudes, pride, anger and biography through the art.

            The realistic representation of the king’s actions and thoughts can be read in the statue. The narrator explains, “Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown/And wrinkled lip and sneer of cold command” (4-5). The traveler describes the great work of the sculptor, who was able to capture the king’s passions and give meaningful expression to the stone. Aristotle argues, “Though the objects may be painful to see, we delight to view the most realistic representation of them in art” (47). Here, the words half sunk, shattered visage, frown and wrinkled lips, cold command” convey the idea that the majesty of the great king has been destroyed. The great ruler of once has nothing great in present except being buried in the vast stretches of sand with the course of time.

            The poem is an imitation of imitation because it has imitated the work of the sculptor who again has imitated the actions of the king. In the means of imitation, this poem has imitated the linguistic rhythm of Shakespearean iambic pentameter. The rhythm has five meters of unstressed syllable followed by stressed syllable.  “ I met a traveler from an antique land” (1). The verse has no stanza break. Neither it completely matches with Shakespearean sonnet nor Petrarchan sonnet. It has no octet and sestet stanza break. It’s rhyming pattern is ABAB, ACDC, ED, EFEF which can be structured in 4-4-2-4 pattern. Aristotle argues, “The means with which art imitates are rhythm, language and harmony are in single or combined form” (45). Here, the combined form of Shakespearean and Petrarchan sonnet can be noticed in the means of language. Similarly, rhythm is also imitated from pattern. But the harmony is not there as it has no proper rhyming pattern like Shakespeare.

            Similarly, in objects of imitation, this poem imitates the character and action of ancient Egyptian king Ramesses II. As argued by Aristotle, “The objects of the imitator represents are actions of agents who are necessarily either good men or bad” (46). Here, the sculptor has imitated the action of king, the great Egyptian emperor who is elevated character than him. His action are thoroughly encraved in the statue, “My name is Ozymandias, king of kings/Look on my works, ye mighty” (11-12). It describes boastfulness of king. The pride and tyranny of that king is justified through the boastful words. The words declare that he was a proud king, a bitter ruler placing himself above than all other kings. The word mighty refers to living legend and deed of then king.

            The ironic representation of human pride is expressed through such time. He mocks the “kings of kings” and how what was once great is now in shameful condition. The ironic pride which is followed by downfall is properly established. As argued by Aristotle, “The agent represented must be either above our own level of goodness or beneath us” (46). The poet here represents the agent who is above us. But it establishes the irony because none of the king’s achievement has actually survived.

            A third difference in the imitation of different arts is through manner. Aristotle argues that every art presents its ideas and thoughts through certain manner. That manner imitates dialogic or conversational and narrative or contemplative mode. He argues, “One may speak at one moment in narrative and at another in an assumed character” (47). Here, in this poem there is the combination of both narrative and dramatic form. So, it is in the dramatic monologue form. First, the narrator narrates the poem by stating “I met a traveler from an antique land” (1). Then, the poem mounts the dialogue between the narrator and the traveler. The manner of tone is quite ironic. Hence, it can be deducted that poem has dramatic irony in it. The words also play with the mocking tone of the poem. The “mocking hand” (8) is that of the sculptor, who had artistic ability to mock and imitate the passions of the king. The heart of the king arouses the sculptor’s passions and in turn sculptor sympathetically recaptures the king’s passion in the stone.

            Further, Aristotle argues the six essential elements of tragedy. He claims that plot is the basic element of tragedy. There can be tragedy without character but there can’t be one without plot. This poem is also tragic story of pride of a tyrant ruler. The stone and surrounding desert constitutes a metaphor for invented power in the face of natural power. By Shelley’s time, nothing remains but a shattered bust, eroded visage and trunkless legs surrounded with nothing but level sands that stretch far away. Shelley thus points human mortality and the fate of artificial things.

            Finally, Aristotle differentiates between the poet and the historian. He argues that poet has ability to convince people with fake events but historian has no ability to express facts in convincing way. He explicitly contends, “A likely impossibility is preferable to an unconvincing possibility” (50). In this poem, the poet has presented the history in very convincing way. That king Ozymandias might not be cruel at all but after reading the poem, we come to conclusion that he was one of the cruel rulers. The words played by the poet convince us to believe the king was an arrogant person.

Thus, we cannot miss the general comment on human vanity in the poem. It is not just the mighty who desire to withstand time. It is common for people to seek immortality and to resist death and decay. It ends with a note of inevitable complete decline of all leaders and of the empires they build, however mighty in their own time they might be.

Works Cited

Selden, Raman. “The Theory of Criticism: From Plato to the Pesent.” Longman, 1990, pp. 45-50.

A Course Packet of Primary Books for Literary Criticism. CDE, TU, 2017, p. 2.