Grotesque use of Language in Richard Mayne's short story F**d

Asmita Ojha ‘15’

The Theory of Literary Criticism, Eng. 553

Instructor: Markas Dangaura

25^th April, 2018

Grotesque use of Language in Richard Mayne's short story F**d

            This paper seeks to examine the ambivalent use of language in Mayne's short story food. The writer was accused of using immoral words in his story. Actually, the writer has used language very ambiguously to mean something else. Hence, how he arouses the appetite of chicken meat in the readers through the usage of sexual imageries becomes a researchable issue.

            J.L. Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words argues about the performative and ambiguous use of language. Austin rejects the old logical view of language as description of state of affairs in the world. He argues, "While some statements may be constative (referential), many others are performative" (95). Some words actually perform the actions they describe. Here, in this story, the judge performs the act of opening the court session by saying , "Well, ladies and gentleman of the jury, we have all heard a great deal this afternoon about purity and compassion" (6). The judge performs along with his utterance. As he says ladies and gentlemen he opens the court listening.

            Raman Selden in "Language and Representation" argues, "A speech act must have a context for it to have a meaning" (95). In other words we decide on meaning once we have decided whether or not a particular locution is an appropriate speech act within particular conventional situation. "Well ladies and gentlemen of the jury" would not possess a performative function in an informal gathering such as a party, unless it were construed as a joke. Selden argues, "Wittgenstein proposes that whole language system is made by the specific context in which the language usage occurs" (95). Austin's theory of speech acts is also related to Wittgenstein's view of language.

            Austin rejects the Aristotelian idea that "The mind should passively reflect things and these images of things should be reflected without distortion in a clear language" (97). In Mayne's story, the clear representation of eating a big chicken tandoori in every Sunday by a couple is reflected in a much distorted way. The small excerpt from the writer's book seems the elaboration of sexual intercourse at first hand. He narrates, "Her hungry eyes met his as, ever so slowly, and she turned to reveal the warm, full curves of her breast and leg. He watched, fascinated as the covering fell away from the soft white skin. Eagerly, he bent forward" (7). The picture of chicken tandoori is presented as a lady seducing a male before sex.

            Austin's grotesque uses of language are the distortions of true human nature. Interestingly his ambiguous story makes us please at the end. It satirizes the follies and vices of the human mind as they are expressed in language. Languages are full of such distorted discourse.

            Austin argues about the three features of human speech. First one is locutionary, second illocutionary and the third is perlocutionary act. As argued by Austin locutionary act means "Uttering a certain sentence within a certain sense and reference" (120). Here, the uttering act of judge about the verdict of the court regarding the book is locutionary act. The story narrates, "For what we have to consider and consider very carefully before we give out verdict" (7). The uttering of verdict is with a sense that before something about anything, we have to be very careful and have enough knowledge. Here, the judge wants readers understand that the book is not about anything immoral.

            Next, Austin argues about the illocutionary act of speech which is performative function of speech. He argues, "To perform an illocutionary act is to determine in what way we are using the locution" (120). Either we are asking or answering a question, or performance of an act in saying something. The story narrates, "We have to consider this book not as remote academic professors, not as pedants but as people, as men and women of the world" (7). The judge appeals people to criticize the book like a common man. Finding certain ideology, psychology and criticism in a text is a duty of professors and teachers but common man should read the text as an art. If we apply theory to any text, the beauty of that text seems quite unfamiliar to us. Thus, here the illocutionary act of the judge can be said as indirect order and appeal.

            Third and the final function of speech is perlocutionary act of speech. Austin argues, "Saying something will often, or even normally produce certain consequential effects upon the feelings thoughts of the audience" (121). He further argues that it may be done with the design, intention or purpose. The judge in the story wants people confirm the non-vulnerability of the text. He thus brings the excerpt from the accused book to prove that book is about arousing temptation and inflame the appetites. The ending of that excerpt states, "Estella surrendered to the moment's sudden succulence, the firm warm flesh that brought the secret juices welling from within her. All too soon they were replete, exhausted. On Sunday's, they always bought too big a chicken" (8). This small excerpt from the book confirms that the book is not about immorality and vulgarity. Rather, the book is a strong procedure to arouse the deep hunger making our mouth juicy for the chicken tandoori.

             Austin claims, "The occasion of an utterance matters seriously and that the words used are to some extent to be explained by the context in which they are designed" (121). The judge saying "And let me remind you ladies and gentleman" (7) is actually contextual because he is addressing all the jury and all the public listening the court session. The judge is persuading them against the blasphemy of the book arguing, "The world is not an ivory tower where there are no problems, no dangers, no human weakness. The world is full of temptations; temptations of the flesh" (7). He disconfirms the negative reaction of the book proposing that since human beings are not out of the play of problems, of course there arise problems. And he develops the context to present the paragraph before them by saying the world is full of temptations, seduction, and attractiveness. Either human flesh or chicken flesh, humans are tempting creatures.

            Consequently, Austin argues about the "Poetical use of language and parasitic use of language" (121) which he means that language can be used very poetically to refer certain action. In the story, the accused writer has used the language in very poetic way to arouse human hunger. Similarly, his language is parasitic because it is dependence upon the sexual connotations and imagery. The words "Her breast and leg , soft white skin, warm flesh, secret juices" (7-8). All these words imply sexual imageries.

            Thus, we can affirm the performative use of language which is more powerful and thrilling. The context is necessary to know the text is explicated by Mayne as argued by Austin.

  

Aesthetic Representation of Reality in Sadat Hasan Manto’s Story Open It

Sunita Khadka ‘9’

The Theory of Literary Criticism, Eng. 553

Prof. Markas Dangaura

17^th April, 2018

Aesthetic Representation of Reality in Sadat Hasan Manto’s Story Open It

This paper tries to seek the aesthetic representation of reality in Sadat Hasan Manto's short partition story "Open it." It is story that reflects the violence of India and Pakistan partition. Thus, how Georg Lukacs's theory of art and objective truth is applicable to Manto's story is a researchable issue.

Before analyzing the text from the perspective of Lukac's theory of course it is necessary to know about the key elements of his theory. His theory deals with 'Art and Objective truth.' In his theory he presents his view on how art should reflect the reality. He argues, "The goal for all great art is to provide a picture of reality in which the contradiction between appearance and reality, the particular and general the immediate and the  conceptual is so resolved that that the two converge into  a spontaneous  integrity" (59). Here, Manto's story provides the picture of reality of India Pakistan partitionship of 1947. Manto himself had to be its victim and he had to leave Bombay for Lahore.

Lukacs argues, "The universal appears as a quality of the individual and particular, reality becomes manifest and can be experienced within reality" (59). In the story the particular story of Sirajuddin becomes the manifestation general reality of those common marginalized people. The story narrates, "Old Sirajuddin opened his eyes on the cold floor of the camp; seeing the swelling sea of men, women and children, he become still more confused" (2). Here the writer doesn't bring the stories of whole victims but only the story of particular individual. Actually, Lukacs was inspired by Karl Marx and Hegel. That's why somewhere his theory is also affected by philosophy of above mentioned people.

According to Lukacs, "Artistic work must be circumscribed, self-evident, self-contained and have complete context within itself" (59). Here the story has its own complete context. The context is of partition and it has its own world to prove its authenticity of social and objective reality. The context provides the information of violence and brutality of human war. The story narrates, "Many people were killed en route, many injured; some went astray" (2). The necessity for the immediate obviousness of the special context is clearest in the story. The context of mass murders and killings and the context of mayhem are clearly presented from the beginning.

The story 'Open it' is actually based on historical context of India. In 1947 when India was divided into Pakistan what happened and how common people had suffered has been clearly shown in this story by Manto. During the partition of India Muslim people of India migrated to Pakistan and Hindu people of Pakistan migrated to India. But this migration from one country to another was violent and full of obstacles, misery, loot, rapes and fatal events. This is the historical context of the story.

Lukacs argues, "The true, fundamental interrelationship in any novel or drama can be disclosed only at the end. Because of the very nature of their construction and effect, only the conclusion provides the full clarification of beginning" (60). Now if we analyze the story we can find the real situation of Sakina only at the end. We come to know that she has been brutally raped and thrown to die by her own Muslim brothers. The story at the end narrates, "At the sound of the words, Sakina's corpse moved. Her dead hands undid her salwar and lowered it" (60). The final piece of event provides the full clarification of why Sakina was lost and abducted by rioters as well as rescuers. Now if we analyze the story, we find as Lukacs argues that artistic work must represent the reality meditatively not photographically or mechanically. Manto does not describe all the events that happens at railway station, how was his wife killed, how other people suffered. But through artistic form, he enables reader to grasp the events which are not depicted in text.

From the beginning to the end the writer creates suspense, doubt and readers are curious to know what is going to happen next. They go through the each events of plot but at last readers find the outcome themselves which writer desired to give. This story also follows the principle of necessity. The volunteers are portrayed as civilized, gentle from their appearance activities.  Later on, we come to know that Sakina was raped by the same volunteers. so, it resolves the contradiction between appearance and reality. The writer doesn't describe each people's events rather he takes one particular individual and family narrative. Georg Lukacs argues," The work of art in its totality reflects the full process of life and does not represent in its details reflections" (64). He narrates their suffering to generalize the sense that how the victims of that part repeitionship had been suffered by their own race.

The volunteers appointed by the government of Pakistan refer to elite class, more clearly 'haves.' Sirajuddin and Sakina are representative of 'haves not' proletariat. We find Sakina has been raped by those volunteers. This actually shows how marginalized people are exploited by elite class people. Lukacs argues, "Bourgeoisie ascendancy was isolated from social reality which reflections of social problems" (65). As Hegel argues that though art reflects objective reality, it must be circumscribed, self-contained, complete in context and self-evident. It means it must have its own world. The evident described in story is total reflection of historical and political events. Its context is also clear but through refining the events it has created its own world in which we find character, geography, situation, events and so on. It is complete in itself. But it actually reflects the real historical reality and context.

            If we pay attention to the last event of the story, doctor is shocked when he sees Sakina's corpse moving. Here, Manto is empathized towards Sakina. Doctor perhaps thinks that she was raped by the race of her own race. Thus, we can find partitionship of objectivity with the writer. His feelings and emotions are more inclined towards Sakina and other victims of partitionship.

Georg Lukacs argues, “The basic materialism of all great artists appears in their depiction of the pertinent preconditions and motivations out of which the consciousness of their characters arises and develops” (60). Here, Sirajuddin after the unconscious travelling from Amritsar, remembers his daughter Sakina through the piece of dupatta. He also remembers his dead wife killed from ripping the stomach. The precondition to remember the past consciousness is dupatta. Sakina’s black mole on her right cheek is also the precondition of how he recognizes and asks other to recognize his daughter.

Similarly, Lukacs argues, “Every significant work of art creates its own world, character, situation and action” (60). This story has also its own world. It has its own characters. The situation resembles the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan. The geography described is about the violent riot of partition. The story describing the geography narrates, “The special train left Amritsar at two in the afternoon and reached Mughalpura eight hours later” (2). The geography of Punjab and Pakistan is described in necessary level.

Lukacs argues, “The effect of the work of art ceases once the reader becomes the aware of contradiction, once he senses that work of art is not an accurate reflection of reality” (61). Here, while reading this story readers come to assume it as reality. But actually it’s not real event of some particular Sirajuddin. This story is only the medium to portray the picture of reality of then partition. It reflects the picture of reality as a whole. Thus, according to Lukacs, it possesses the quality of the particular to general.

This story does not bear the extensive totality of life. Because if it will bear the extensive totality of life, the single story would change into a long narrative as a form of novel. So, the unnecessary details and intensive qualities are only included. As argued by Lukacs, “the detail must be so selected and so depicted from the outset” (66). The extensive totality of reality necessarily is beyond the possible scope of any artistic creation. Manto writes, “10 am. Old Sirajuddin opened his eyes on the cold floor of the camp, seeing the swelling sea of men, women and children, he become still more confused” (2). Here, the artist does not describe the photographic details of Sirajuddin’s situation and the situation of the camp. The writer only presents the selected details that gives the picture of whole reality to the audience. Lukacs also argues that the briefest song can be as effective as the mightiest epic. The objective quantity  and quality of life is depicted by Manto.

As claimed by Lukacs, “Art represents the unity of the immediate and the universal” (62). Here, in the story the immediate reflects to the individual story of Sirajuddin. Likewise, universal refers to the general condition of whole marginalized Muslim class people. Sirajuddin’s immediate story brings forth the whole scenario of the emergency period of partition.

Lukacs also argues about the “propaganda effect of genuine work of art” (63) which explains that the artist should not take stand or side to any party. But Lukacs claims that since this kind of impartial imitation is impossible or false objectivity, the writer should have partisanship of objectivity which means that writer should show sympathy or support the subaltern people indirectly. Manto in this story is not directly advocating for those Muslim sufferers but through artistic representation, his attachment or empathy is with them.

            Lukacs states about the “aesthetic illusion” (64) in the great work of art. It means that we surrender ourselves to art while reading it as though it presents reality to us. This story also enchants us to believe that this is factual or historical narrative of certain real person called Sirajuddin. But its not necessary that Sirajuddin was there in reality. If the writer writes about reality, the writer becomes historian not artist. Thus, the realistic art deceives us for taking something as reality. Its not necessary that artist should have direct experience. Through indirect experience also, the artist can portray the picture of reality. Here, Manto portrays the picture of reality which makes us feel that Manto has really experienced it.

            There is objective anarchy in the selection and arrangement of story material. The events, characters, and scenes are very objectively selected. Unnecessary description is not there. The traumatic condition of Sakina after rape is artistically represented. Thus, while reading this story, there is not ‘ahh…ooh…ssshh’ feeling.

Works Cited

A Course Packet of Primary Books for Literary Criticism. CDE, TU, 2017, pp. 2-6.

Selden, Raman. “The Theory of Criticism: From Plato to the Pesent.” Longman, 1990, pp. 59-66.

How Objective Necessity is different from Subjective Idealism and Mechanical Representation

“Art and Objective Truth”from Writer and Critic (1965, 1970), Georg Lukacs

•       The goal of all great art is to provide a picture of reality in which the contradiction between appearance and reality, the particular and general, the immediate and conceptual is so resolved that the two converge into a spontaneous integrity in the direct impression of the work of art and provide a sense of an inseparable integrity.

•       The universal appears as a quality of the individual and the particular.

•       Reality becomes manifest and can be experienced within appearance

•       Every work of art must present a circumscribed, self-contained and complete context with its own immediately self-evident movement and structure.

•       The true, fundamental relationships in any novel or drama can be disclosed only at the end.

•       Because of the very nature of their construction and effect, only the conclusion provides full clarification of the beginning.

•       The motivating factors in the world depicted in a literary work of art are revealed in an artistic sequence and climaxing.

•       Climaxing must be accomplished within a direct unity of appearance and reality present from the very beginning.

•       The self-contained immediacy in the work of art presupposes that every work of art evolve within itself all the preconditions for its characters, situations, events, etc.

•       The basic materialism of all great artists appears in their clear depiction of the pertinent preconditions and motivations out of which the consciousness of their characters arises and develops.

•       Every significant work of art creates its ‘own world’. Characters, situations, actions, etc.

•       But entirely distinct from everyday reality.

•       The greater the artist, the more intensely his creative power permeates all aspects of his work of art and more pregnantly his fictional world emerges through all the details of the work.

•       Balzac in his book Comedie Humaine argues, “My work has its own geography as well as its own genealogy and its own families, its places and its objects, its people and its facts, its aristocracy and bourgeoisie, its workmen and peasants, its politicians and its dandies-in short its world.”

•       The apparently circumscribed world in the work of art is non-correspondent with reality.

•       But this non-correspondence is only illusion, though a necessary one essential and intrinsic to art.

•       Special world of the work of art results from the fact that the work by its very nature offers a truer, more complete, more vivid and more dynamic reflection of reality.     

•       More concrete insight into reality.                                                                  

•       The effect of the work of art ceases once the reader becomes aware of the contradiction, once he senses that the work of art is not an accurate reflection of reality.

•       This is only illusion and its necessary.

•       Reader does not consciously compare an individual experience with an isolated event of the work of art but surrenders himself to the general effect of the work of art on the basis of his own assembled general experience.

•       The work of art must reflect correctly and in proper proportion all important factors objectively determining the area of life it represents.

•       Area of life becomes comprehensible from within which is called totality of life..

•       The totality of the work of art is rather intensive: the circumscribed and self contained ordering of those factors which objectively are of decisive significance for the portion of life depicted..which determines total life process

Propaganda effect of the genuine work of art

•      The representation of life in art seems more structured and ordered more richly and strictly than ordinary or real life itself.

•      Impartial imitation- taking no stand or providing no call for any action.

Partitionship of objectivity

•      A writer’s sympathy should go for the subordinate/marginalized people. His/her voice should be in favor of downtrodden people.

•      Tendentiousness must spring out of the situation and action without being expressly pointed out.

Aesthetic illusion

•      The effect of work of art is that we surrender ourselves to the work as though it presented reality to us, accept it as reality and immerse ourselves in it although we are always aware that it is not reality but simply a special form of reflecting reality.

•      Lenin observes that “Art does not demand recognition as reality.”

Subjective Idealism

•      Subjective idealism is thinking only in terms of abstract ideas and standing away from the world of reality. Only believing upon your feelings and emotions can not produce the objective reality of society. It can be bad if it does not have link with reality of concrete world, practical world.

Why Art for Art’s Sake was propaganda theory ?

•      Art for art’s sake was developed by bourgeoisie to neglect the content and imitation of life because they never wanted to bring forth the social reality to the common readers. It was developed because with the course of time, they lost the necessary details to include in their writings. Readers would not have accepted their writings because most of the writers belonged to that class. Thus, it was political propaganda to diffuse the working class wrath against them. It was means not to make them aware about the social evils, which was most often due to bourgeois domination.

Why Photographic Representation is not good for art of reality ?

•      Photographic representation is totally accidental, arbitrary and subjective.

•      The objectivity of the artistic reflection of reality depends on the correct reflection of reality.

Objective Anarchy

•      It means that while presenting facts and details in context artist chooses materials out of pure subjectivity and necessity., which is also called objective necessity.

•      Artist should create, choose and organize material out of objective necessity.

•      Details of rape is not presented in the story.

•      Objective reality of particular event.

•      The writer’s empathy should be there, the writer should not advocate for the subaltern people directly.

•      He/she should only show their condition, should not act as supporting or give necessary details supporting their situations.

•      Mechanical representation(Materialism) falls into distorted idealism and subjectivism.

Mimetic Representation of Human Reality in P. B. Shelley’s Ozymandias

Barsha Ghimire ‘7’

The Theory of Literary Criticism, Eng. 553

Prof. Markas Dangaura

7^th April, 2018

Mimetic Representation of Human Reality in P. B. Shelley’s Ozymandias

            The poem “Ozymandias” is a satiric poem intended to convey the message that power and pride are vain. This poem imitates the message the character and action of an ancient Egyptian emperor Ramesses II. Aristotle in his “Poetics” argues, “Art is an imitation of imitation.” Thus, how this poem embodies the imitative features of Aristotle becomes a researchable issue.

            Aristotle argues about the structure of plot required for a good poem. He argues, “Every mode of art differs from one another in three ways; either by their difference in means, by difference in the objects and in the manner of their imitation” (45). The narrator in the poem meets with a traveler from antique land and comes to know about the colossal wrecked statue of Ramesses II.  The narrator argues that the sculptor has exactly imitated the actions and emotional essence of the king. Moreover, the statue portrays the realistic lifestyle of the king. The narrator states, “Tell that its sculptor well those passions read” (6). The sculptor is able to read those passions of king. He vividly exposes the king’s attitudes, pride, anger and biography through the art.

            The realistic representation of the king’s actions and thoughts can be read in the statue. The narrator explains, “Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown/And wrinkled lip and sneer of cold command” (4-5). The traveler describes the great work of the sculptor, who was able to capture the king’s passions and give meaningful expression to the stone. Aristotle argues, “Though the objects may be painful to see, we delight to view the most realistic representation of them in art” (47). Here, the words half sunk, shattered visage, frown and wrinkled lips, cold command” convey the idea that the majesty of the great king has been destroyed. The great ruler of once has nothing great in present except being buried in the vast stretches of sand with the course of time.

            The poem is an imitation of imitation because it has imitated the work of the sculptor who again has imitated the actions of the king. In the means of imitation, this poem has imitated the linguistic rhythm of Shakespearean iambic pentameter. The rhythm has five meters of unstressed syllable followed by stressed syllable.  “ I met a traveler from an antique land” (1). The verse has no stanza break. Neither it completely matches with Shakespearean sonnet nor Petrarchan sonnet. It has no octet and sestet stanza break. It’s rhyming pattern is ABAB, ACDC, ED, EFEF which can be structured in 4-4-2-4 pattern. Aristotle argues, “The means with which art imitates are rhythm, language and harmony are in single or combined form” (45). Here, the combined form of Shakespearean and Petrarchan sonnet can be noticed in the means of language. Similarly, rhythm is also imitated from pattern. But the harmony is not there as it has no proper rhyming pattern like Shakespeare.

            Similarly, in objects of imitation, this poem imitates the character and action of ancient Egyptian king Ramesses II. As argued by Aristotle, “The objects of the imitator represents are actions of agents who are necessarily either good men or bad” (46). Here, the sculptor has imitated the action of king, the great Egyptian emperor who is elevated character than him. His action are thoroughly encraved in the statue, “My name is Ozymandias, king of kings/Look on my works, ye mighty” (11-12). It describes boastfulness of king. The pride and tyranny of that king is justified through the boastful words. The words declare that he was a proud king, a bitter ruler placing himself above than all other kings. The word mighty refers to living legend and deed of then king.

            The ironic representation of human pride is expressed through such time. He mocks the “kings of kings” and how what was once great is now in shameful condition. The ironic pride which is followed by downfall is properly established. As argued by Aristotle, “The agent represented must be either above our own level of goodness or beneath us” (46). The poet here represents the agent who is above us. But it establishes the irony because none of the king’s achievement has actually survived.

            A third difference in the imitation of different arts is through manner. Aristotle argues that every art presents its ideas and thoughts through certain manner. That manner imitates dialogic or conversational and narrative or contemplative mode. He argues, “One may speak at one moment in narrative and at another in an assumed character” (47). Here, in this poem there is the combination of both narrative and dramatic form. So, it is in the dramatic monologue form. First, the narrator narrates the poem by stating “I met a traveler from an antique land” (1). Then, the poem mounts the dialogue between the narrator and the traveler. The manner of tone is quite ironic. Hence, it can be deducted that poem has dramatic irony in it. The words also play with the mocking tone of the poem. The “mocking hand” (8) is that of the sculptor, who had artistic ability to mock and imitate the passions of the king. The heart of the king arouses the sculptor’s passions and in turn sculptor sympathetically recaptures the king’s passion in the stone.

            Further, Aristotle argues the six essential elements of tragedy. He claims that plot is the basic element of tragedy. There can be tragedy without character but there can’t be one without plot. This poem is also tragic story of pride of a tyrant ruler. The stone and surrounding desert constitutes a metaphor for invented power in the face of natural power. By Shelley’s time, nothing remains but a shattered bust, eroded visage and trunkless legs surrounded with nothing but level sands that stretch far away. Shelley thus points human mortality and the fate of artificial things.

            Finally, Aristotle differentiates between the poet and the historian. He argues that poet has ability to convince people with fake events but historian has no ability to express facts in convincing way. He explicitly contends, “A likely impossibility is preferable to an unconvincing possibility” (50). In this poem, the poet has presented the history in very convincing way. That king Ozymandias might not be cruel at all but after reading the poem, we come to conclusion that he was one of the cruel rulers. The words played by the poet convince us to believe the king was an arrogant person.

Thus, we cannot miss the general comment on human vanity in the poem. It is not just the mighty who desire to withstand time. It is common for people to seek immortality and to resist death and decay. It ends with a note of inevitable complete decline of all leaders and of the empires they build, however mighty in their own time they might be.

Works Cited

Selden, Raman. “The Theory of Criticism: From Plato to the Pesent.” Longman, 1990, pp. 45-50.

A Course Packet of Primary Books for Literary Criticism. CDE, TU, 2017, p. 2.

Marriage as a Legitimacy of Social Orders in John Dryden's "Marriage a la Mode"

Marriage as a Legitimacy of Social Values in John Dryden's Marriage a-la Mode
The pastoral romance of Palmyra and Leonidas through the rusticity of village into the authoritative court of king Polydamas gives the harsh challenges to the self desire to quest the self destiny. But the terms and conventions of the court of Polydamas simply stand as the objection to the easy acceptance of marriage between Palmyra and Leonidas. Hence, here the marriage is used as the pure legitimacy of family lineage and power for the inception of peace and stability during 'Restoration Era, 1660 to 1780' (quoted in English Literature in Context 211) is a researchable issue.
Marriage is a socially accepted conventional idea of getting the generation forward. It's not only just reuniting of two souls and bodies but it’s a process of choosing correct and legitimate genealogical upbringings. Literary critic Maurice Ashley in an inline article argues that, "The ideal marriage began with the selection by the parents of the potential spouse." In the drama, this is exposed by Polydamas in the court when Leonidas and Palmyra are first brought before him. He says, "If from your hands/ your powers. I shall this day receive a daughter Argaleon, she is yours/ but if a son/ then Amalthea's love shall make him happy"(Act I, Sce.I 86).
As per the use of drama, it stands as the union of two opposing forces, sometimes antagonistic forces to reconciliation believe in marriage could solve the rivalry. So, it stands as the piece and stability of the state. More than that the drama unites the pastoral beauty with the courtly chaos and creates the new state of equilibrium. Literary critic Lawrence Stone in his online article argues that, "For over half a century, from the 1680s to 1740s the arranged marriage exclusively for interest, were practiced by the aristocracy." Here, in the drama, Polydamas has already made a plan to wed if he has  daughter then to Argalean but if a son then to Amalthea. But John Dryden has assaulted this notion of aristocratic marriage wittily.
Marriage after lots of chaos denotes the struggle of individuals in society to make their own choice. As the literary critic Antonio Fraser in her online article From the Weaker Vessel argues that, "Throughout the 17th century England, a girl might well have been forced into a marriage against her will by parental pressure and have herself there by robbed of her freedom." Polydamas forces Palmyra to marry Argaleon when he comes to know her as his own daughter. Polydamas commands," Argaleon, lead my daughter/as we go, I shall have time to give her my commands/ in which you are concerned" (Act III Sce. I, 109). When Palmyra was commanded to marry Argaleon by her newly found father Leonidas says that," The king can give no good merit to love" (109).
Society objects the naïve idea of individual. It objects their choice. The marriage shows the acceptance of earlier discontentment. Stone describes the state of married women of Restoration arguing that,"The most obvious method of breaking a marriage was to leave home. Most of this cruelty was a product of poverty brutality and alcohol." Here, the wife of Polydamas with her child and the queen flee away when they learn that he was returning from war. "And when his crimes had impudence enough/ to bear the eye of day/ Eubulus was fled, and with him bore away the queen/ his wife, now big with child, and much detesting/ her husband practices had willingly/accompanied their fright" (Act I. Sce. I 85). Now, fleeing away of Eudoxia from palace proves how much cruel and brutal was Polydamas which created fear even to his own wife.
How marriage is socially perceived notion by experienced and amateur is the question. Amateurs simply put it with love and lust but experienced put it with legitimacy of future. Sir George Saville in his online article Marquels of Halifax; Advice to Daughter argues that," Young women were seldom permitted to make their own choice, there modesty often forbidden them to refuse when their parents recommend, though their inward consent may not entirely go along with it." Here, in the drama Polydamas compels Palmyra to marry Argaleon.
Palmyra also starts to think of not going against her father. So, she asks Leonidas to request Polydamas for marrying her. "And is it thus,you quote Palymira's bed/ can see the murderer of her parent wed/ so much you well may give to love and me / to let my father awake" (Act IV Sce.4 124). She requests Leonidas to let her father leave if he really loves her. It shows how the daughters were attached to their parents though they have some kind of self desire for freedom. They could never freely betray their parents.
In the same article Saville argues that,"The root and the excuse of this injustice is the preservation of the family from any mixture which may bring blemish to them." It can be observed in the drama when Artemis; a court lady says to Amalthea about the quest of Polydamas to find the true heir of his kingdom. But actually instead of Polydamas, Sicily is itself in turmoil because it does not have legitimate king. So, ironically it reflects the state's quest for true legitimate king which was Leonidas. Artemis declares the truth about the inquisitiveness of Polydamas saying,"That this old king/ whom all the world thought childless/ should come to search the farthest parts old Sicily/in hope to find heir" (Act I Sce.I 84).
Without the correct legitimacy of marriage whole family lineage can be crushed. So, marriage is the inception for new era of peace and stability hinting the changes in perceived conventions. Adultery and emotional attachments were also the recurrent cultures of restoration. The adultry of Palamede and Rhodophil reflects the bawdiness and raucousness of the age especially among the aristocratic classes as argued by Natalie Zemon Davis and Aritte Fonge.
Palamade's speech in Act I Scene I shows the adultery when he says,"I have a strange king of mistress in court, besides her I am to marry another courtly woman." It shows how the aristocratic culture was getting contaminated. It hints that aristocratic people were too much suppressed of their limitations by socio cultural norms and values. It has constrained them to act freely in society and to hide their sexual desire. So, it shows the moral and sexual experimentation in Restoration.
Stone argues that,"Marriage during Restoration was a contract, with mutual rights and obligations whose nature could be debated endlessly." Here, in the drama also the marriage can be seen as obligations. Palmyra was obliged to marry Argaleon. Polydamas commands his intentions that he has already decided if he has a daughter, she would be married to Argaleon for he is to gain more courtly power. Similary, if he is to have a son he would be married to Amalthea which would make her happy (Act I Sce. I 86). So, it seems as if he has made some kind of contract for marriage.
According to an online article posted in examplessay.com, it is narrated that," Drama seeks to convey a representation of life. It contains heroic tragedy and tears or humour, witness an upper classes."  We can find lots of humour and comedy in sub plots. They come through the dialogues of Palamade, Rhodophil, Doralice and Melantha. It is expressed in the speeches of Doralice. In Act I Scene I she replies Palamede in a very comic way. When he asked whether she is married or not. She replies," Yes, married to a gentleman; young handsome, rich, valiant and with all the good qualities that will make you despair and hang yourself" (Act I Sce. I 81). So, the farures of humour and comedy can be noticed as one of the salient features of restoration drama.
Similarly, we can also see many female characters used in the drama as the remark of Restoration. The drama starts with female role, Belizo. There are altogether seven lady characters. So, ladies are also given the place. In the speech of Rhodophil, we can see the discontent of married husband when he replies to Palamede's question about his wife," Ask those, who have smelt to a strong perfume two years together, what's the scent" (Act I Sce.I 82).
The smell of same perfume for two years shows that he is fade up with his married life. So, the whole scenario of sub-plot tells us how the marriage was taken as a restraint of sexual and personal freedom. Courtiers and royal members want to break this restriction but no matter they never prefer interclass marriage.
According to cyberpal.com," Restoration age was characterized by a sense of loss and cultural disillusion coupled with force to restore social stability and cohesion." Dryden here, also presents how the notion of spiritual and pure marriage was under degradation during Restoration. Through the marriage life of Rhodophil and Doralice, the playwright gives us the loss of stability, faith and love in married life. Being a married woman Doralice freely makes extra marital affair with Palamede. In the Act III Scene I she says, "For men the problem is wife is same, for wife problem is husband is not same" (101).
Litrary critic Birdsall in an online article writes that," Marriage was seen as restrictions, all the more since were divorces were practically impossible to obtain". It also implies the sense that for aristocratic people, values of marriage was intense to bear and they want to change in their personal freedom but breaking lineage was suppose to bring chaos.
When in 1649 Charles II was exiled and England was ruled by Cromwell upto 1660, England suffered through various political turmoil because the legitimacy was upon the person outside the lineage. England was indulged in the two decades long civil wars. There was the intervention of army on the parliament. But after the restoration of Charles second, all problems seemed to be settled (English Literature in Context 220). It proves how the linearity and legitimacy was taken as a vital issue in Restoration play, so, to establish the peace and stability legitimacy needed to be restored in England.
Hence, through the correct legitimacy of marriage between Palmyra and Leonidas, the playwright presents the ideas that marriage is not just the pastoral romance but it is the inception of social law and orders. The last acceptance of Leonidas as a rightful prince restores the chain of legacy. Polydamas accepts the legitimacy of Leonidas and their marriage as a socially valid order because Palmyra also comes to be a court lady. He gives her hand to Leonidas as a symbol of acceptable marriage and says, "The gods, and my Palmyra make you happy/ as you make me" (Act V Sce. I 136).







Works Cited
Dryden, John. "Marriage a La Mode." British and American Drama. Comp. CDE,TU.Kirtipur: TU Books. 73-139. Print.
Poplawsky, Paul, ed. English Literature in Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 211-301. Print.
Ashley, Maurice. "Love and Marriage in Seventeenth Century England." History Today. 10.1(1960): n.pag. Web. 7 July 2016.
Stone, Lawrence. "From road to Divorce: England 1530-1987.Prov.Marquerite Connor. Attitudes to Marriage in Restoration Drama. Web. 7 July 2016. http://www.english.fju.edu.tw/
Fraser, Antonia. "From the Weaker Vessel: Women Lot in Seventeenth Century England." Attitudes to Marriage in Restoration Drama. Web. 7 July 2016.
Saville, George. "Marquels of Halifax: Advice to Daughter." Attitudes to Marriage in Restoration Drama. Web. 7 July 2016.
ExampleEssay.com. Web. 7 July 2016.http://www.exampleessay.com/viewpaper/
"Love and Marriage in Restoration Comedies." Cyberpal.com. Web. 7 July 2016.<http://www.cyberpal.com/shir/site/restore2/>

Spiritual Imperialism in the narratives of the travelogue "Swami Vivekananda On Himself"

Quest for Spiritual Imperialism in the Travelogue " Swami Vivekananda on Himself"
The biography of Swami Vivekananda edited, compiled and published by Swami Bhodasaranand, Advaita Ashrama depicts the travel narratives of Vivekanand from his childhood to the Parliament of Religions. Actually the biography can be looked as autobiography because it is based on dairies of Vivekanand in the first person narrative 'I'. The story is narrated by Swami Bhodasarananda. So, I shall technically analyse wheather the sannyasin and nomadic life of Vivekananda was for his quest of spiritual imperalism and travel pleasure or not.
Sidonie Smith and Julia Watson in their book Reading Autobiography argue that, "We might ask what cultural meanings a narrative acquired when it was written or published "(166). Of course, the first edition of book is dated on 1963. It was the time when autobiography writing came to the "Second Wave" (122) approach where creative self representation was established. The historical figure is spiritual. The narrating I makes devotion to his religious belief Hinduism and to his master Shri Ramakrishna Pramhans (1884,figure 3; 8). Here, the narrated I Swami Vivekananda writes that he was born as the wanderer sannyasin and spiritual hunter. In the chapter two Discipleship he writes about his finding of horoscope concealed by his father, " I came across the chart among some papers in my mother's possession and saw from it that I was destined to become a wanderer on the face of earth" (9). From this very first confession of believing in Hindu Brahmin culture he hides the real truth but exposes the psychology of his narrative towards making of his autobiography to lead the conclusion, into which his life was finally saved.
Of course, Vivekananda was good wanderer and what we call a elite traveler from post colonial perspective. As Christians extended their Christianity during colonialism through missionary work in the name of "conversion and confession of a Christian sense of sin and shame" (85).The narrative included under the topic March of Events he confesses exposing his psychology of travelling "Travelling is the best thing in life. I am afraid I shall die if made to stick to one place for a long time"(93). From this narrative, how much hatred he keeps towards the immovable instinct of man  is cleared. Almost whole Europe, America and developed countries of Asia were visited by him.
Vivekananda was a spiritual imperialist for Hinduism is clearly manifested when he narrates his superiority for Hinduism in New York on 20th May 1895 writing " West is in need of Hindu ideas of God and calls upon the young men to go and preach to the West. This has created quite a furore of course amongst the Missions "(193). It verifies that he was against Christian missionary and wants to establish Hinduism as the superior. So, he was the East imperialist of Hinduism. His strong hatred is manifested when he tries to bring his real feelings in the chapter The Divine Call and the Parliament of Religions saying, " I go forth, to preach a religion of which Buddhism is nothing but a rebel child, and Christianity, with all her pretentions only a distant echo" (111). He says that he was called by Lord for this, which proves that his narratives of autobiography is "a form of devotion in the service of spiritual examination" (86).
In terms of looking through "The History of Reading Publics" (166), we came to know that it is written by Swami Sambuddhananda who was general  secretary of the Swami Vivekananda Centenary committee which was dissolved after its work was completed (V). Later on, it was published and circulated by chairman of Advaita Ashmrama, Uttrakhand (quoted in preface page). The position of historical person writing the autobiography is a prominent historical figure (168). Self important kind of turn comes through the narrative voice when Vivekananda says, " I in this big lunatic asylum, I am also mad, I am mad after God. If you are mad after God, you are mad; so am I. I think my madness is after all the best" (57). Autobiography critic Smith and Watson argue that, " The narrating I puts itself defensive through the narrative voice" (168). This is what we can find in the above narratives of Vivekananda.
There is also the changing tone of the narrating I because of the ideological notion of the I affecting the self narrator. His narratives during  New York praises White people. It is clear by his narratives in the topic March of Events "The Americans are most hospitable, kind hearted, generous and good natured" (238) but his frustration is also encoded in the lesson Return to India "I did not go to America as most of you know, for the Parliament of the Religions but this demon of a feeling was in me and within my soul I travelled twelve years all over India, finding no way to work for my countrymen, and that is why I went to America" (238). Hence, this narrative proves his frustration with his own countrymen being indifferent to his preaching and ideas.
But his prideful defense of earlier narrative is drastically changed latter on when he says," I am a countryman of yours, you the descendants of the most glorious Rishis the world ever saw I believe in patriotism" (274). In the topic The Plan of Work, he no longer only praises white Americans and Europeans but returning his narrative towards patriotism he tries to justify that after all he is a Hindu and he is proud of country where he was born.
"In terms of multiplicity of identity" (169), he contemplates over his own identity and people's criticism when he narrates, "Some would call you a saint, some a chandala; some a lunatic, others a demon"(154). Here, he contemplates over how people react to his work. He deliberately appeals his people to take him as a saint of spiritual philosophy but conflicting identity of nationality is also observed when writes," Western music is very good; there is in it a perfection of harmony, which we Indians have not attained" (150) on 10th April 1894 in New York.
his story is "a story of conversion through fall and enlightenment, a story of individual self making "(169). His biography depicts religious faiths, family history and cultural stereotypes. It is resembled in the narratives when he eulogizes about Advaita Philosophy," The Vedanta is the only light that lightens the sects and creeds of the world, the one principle of which all religions are only applications" (286). Here, he defines the importance of Vendantism. His story of individual self making and cultural stereotypes is cleared in the lines," Power comes to him who observe unbroken Brahmacharya for a period of twelve years with the sole object of realizing god. I have practiced that kind of Brahmacharya myself" (147).
Above narrative shows the contemporary cultural belief that one has to strongly leave all the worldly pleasures behind if one has to obtain enlightenment. If so, why he use to eat meat, used to live in luxurious apartments and used to be afraid of death comes as the conflicting ideas. But he accepts the real intension of going West and earning money when he says,"People here are sleeping on a bed of flowers, they eat all kinds of delicacies, while people in our country are dying of starvation. One of the objects of my going to the West to preach religion was to see if I could find any means for feeding the people of this country" (290). This shows at least, Vivekananda had understood hungry people need bread more than philosophy. So, he had a sense of what materialistic power could do.
The organizing principles are also employed in the biography such as photographs and illustrations embedded among the narratives to tell the story and involve the reader. There are photos in the early section of biography where his ancestral home, mother, master, himself on state of being enlightened as kali. Smith and Watson in their tool kit argue that, "The photo at once gives flesh to the narrator, embodying her for the reader"(170).hence, here, the use of photography brings the gaps between reader and the narrator more closer. It omits the distance of subjectivity and objectivity.
The time of telling the narrative is in his late thirties because according to his birth date he was enlightened in1886 (at the age of twenty three) and he went to America on 10th July 1893 (113). So, from these dates we can say that his telling is almost after his thirties. Similarly the times of past, present and future are organized chronologically in the telling of the story. So, the narrative relates a continuous chronology from birth to adolescence to adulthood.
The biographical narratives of addressing of multiple audiences from child to old age, from common official to high post officials he appeals. He appeals everyone to believe in God when he says," I hope you will have no bitterness. It is karma that brings us together and karma separates" (300). So, whoever comes before him is his addressee. There are silences and gaps about his family life which time and often puts him to regret. There is a little bit exposition when he regrets being unable to look after his family, brother and sister. He says, "My mistakes have been great. The peace the quit I am seeking I never found. I went years ago to the Himalayas, never to come back; and my sister committed suicide,  the news reached me there and that weak heart flung me off from that prospect of peace"(304). This provides us to look into the inner feelings of Vivekananda and helps us to find how deeply he was wounded form alienation of his family. But whatever, he could never control his desire of travelling.
In the "meanings of remembering"(172), Vivekananda especially emphasizes the saying of his master Ramakrishna Pramahans, " Wherever you will take me on your shoulders there I will go and stay be it under a tree or in a hut" (266). He also remembers his childhood about his character of donating money, food and other materials to Shadus and beggars in the topic Birth and Boyhood. He claims,"I have such a good memory. When I was only two years old, I use to play with my syce at being a vairagi, clothed in ashes and kaupina and if a sadhu came to beg, they would lock me in, upstairs, to prevent my giving too much away"(2). But his narrative does not focus much upon the act of remembering. Most of his visits are written in present tense. So, it is claimable that he has written his diaries during his visit to different places.
In terms of evidence, he writes actual speech delivered at the Parliament of Religions (128), and actual dates, photos and the reviews from international newspapers like Herald ( the greatest paper in Chicago) which states," Vivekananda is undoubtedly the greatest figure in the Parliament of Religions. After hearing him we feel how foolish it is to send missionaries to this learned nation" (131). In terms of authority and authenticity there is no doubt that his diary entries are edited and printed in the first person narratives. So, it seems more authentic. He is himself the experienced one and writer but the fallacy is that it is edited version.
So, everything and whole truth is never too good to expect by readers. According to the New Testament, John 5, it is quoted that " If I bear witness of myself, my witness is not true. There is another witness of me and I know that witness which he witnesses of me is true" (31-32,176). Of course, here, he himself bears witnesses but the weakness is that whole truth about his another side of life is not lighted. only his diary journals are there thought narrating I is someone different from narrated i.
agency, is created through the greatness of his spiritual leadership as being a enlightened guru. So, the strategy of gaining strategy (176) is through his self spiritual enlightenment. in terms of relationality he talks about Ramakrishna Pramahans as the other, mentor and over all the great divine force helping him to achieve the grace of god. he talks about the greatness of his master saying, "Mother, I want nothing but knowledge and devotion. coming out of the temple I understood that all this was due to the master's soul" (32).
the act of narrating his life has brought the autobiographical narrator to different ways of knowing that single life. In the beginning, he shows his repulsion towards Buddhism by saying it a rebel child but in the last lesson I believe he admits Buddha and says, " The lord Buddha is my Ishta- my God. he preached no theory about god head- he was himself god, I fully believe it" (331).
in terms of collaborative autobiography (178), this is not as-told-to narrative. Rather, it is semi ghost written narrative. It is clarified by the preface section of the biography that "the original publisher, Swami Sambuddhananda was general secretary  of the Swami Vivekananda Centenary committee which was dissolved after its work was completed.
so, overall technically analyzing biography of swami Vivekananda we find him as the spiritual seeker, imperialist, even escapist from reality. He made his family starve to death while he visited round the world. The narrative methodology is quite coherently applied in this biography. techniques and tool kits of autobiographical narratology may prove it to be a good biography but to talk about essence, Vivekananda has stood as the spokesperson of Hinduism, devotee to his master, strength of religion, a travel pleasure seeker. Hence, there is strong reason to claim that he comes as a first grade missionary of Hinduism.





Works Cited
Smith, Sidonie., and Julia Watson. Reading Autobiography: A Guide for Interpreting Life Narratives. London: University of Minnesota Press, 2010. 165-183. Print.
Bodhasaranda, Swami., and Swami Sambudhananda. Swami Vivekananda On Himself. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama, May 2012. Print.
New Testament; Psalm's Proverbs( John 5;31:32). Nashville: The Gideons International, 2010.176. Print.
Mani, Lata. "Interleaves:Ruminations on Illness and Spiritual Life". New York: Yoda Press, Oct.4 2011. Print.
Horner, Winifrred Bryan, ed. "Life Writing". New Jersy: Prentice Hall, 1997. Print.